A virtual function call is termed a “message dispatch.” A call that acts virtual on multiple parameters is called multiple dispatch, which is not directly supported in C++. Several resolutions exist, but none is without its disadvantages.

Objects that stand for other objects are often called proxy objects (or surrogates), and the classes that give rise to proxy objects are often called proxy classes, which is useful for implementing multidimensional arrays, differentiating lvalue/rvalue, and suppressing implicit conversions.

Reference counting is technique that allows multiple objects with the same value to share a sinple representation of that value.

Smart pointers are designed to look, act, and feel like built-in pointers, but to offer greater functionality.

Techniques for requiring or prohibiting heap-based objects